William Hazlitt Essay Example for Free

William Hazlitt Essay Money isn’t everything, but for English writer William Hazlitt that saying couldn’t be farther from the truth. The essay he has chosen to write is a list of contradictions given to show the reader why the true purpose in life is money. Hazlitt conveys his thoughts on money to persuade others that money is everything. To persuade his reader he uses specific syntax, tone and diction to convey this message. William Hazlitt begins his passage with stating â€Å"literally and truly, one cannot get on well in the world without money† (1). By starting the essay like this his stance whether or not money is everything is clear. As the passage develops you find that he is trying to persuade people who think money isn’t everything by belittling this with statements like â€Å"to be a burden to your relations† (39-40) to make the reader second guess them self. Also by him addressing â€Å"yourself† (45) in the passage he is directing it at a particular person or group of people. By doing these things he creates an informal essay with little detail. Hazlitt expresses a contemptuous tone throughout the essay. In his essay he compares having no money to â€Å"laborious employment† (16) and â€Å"thrown into†¦ a gaol,† (33) these are all situations that a majority of people dislike or do don’t want out of life. He uses this to persuade readers into his way of thinking. Hazlitt uses one huge compound sentence combining many contradictions. This compound sentence takes up lines 2-47 which is the majority of this passage; overwhelming readers by also adding intricate diction like â€Å"gaol† (33) â€Å"acquirements† (8) all to enhance his point by still using an informal tone. In conclusion William Hazlitt attempts to persuade his non-believer readers about the advantages of money and why it is truly everything. Whether it is by burdening your family or â€Å"sitting at a desk† (17) is condemns the reader and uses negative connotations. This strikes a reader and shows reasons why money is truly everything.

GST system: Hurdles to implementation

GST system: Hurdles to implementation Executive Summary The differences between the current Sales and Services tax structure and the proposed GST system is also analysed. The current single stage sales and services tax is from 5% to 10% while the proposed broad based GST is 4%. This report also determines the importance of GST to the governments fiscal policies and the potential negative impacts of the proposed GST system to business entities and the people. The main purpose for introducing GST is to make the current taxation system more comprehensive, efficient, effective, transparent and business friendly. The potential negative impact is the problem of price hike as a result of inefficient price control and the additional compliance costs for businesses to have additional work to track input taxes paid. The possible hurdle Malaysia government faces in the process of implementing this new system is also being discussed. The significant informal sector makes the tax system inequitable. Besides, lack of transparency bred uncertainty among the business community. The huge maintenance cost each year of RM8.5 million is burdensome. Moreover, choosing the most suitable tax rate and determine the goods that should exempt take long time. Finally, because exports are generally zero-rated, this is often where GST fraud occurs. This report also critically discusses the tax issues that have arisen as a result of implementing GST/VAT in certain developing countries. The major reason for the decline in Ukraines VAT to GDP ratio lies in the Ukraines tax administration. On the other hand, the VAT evasion, hidden economy size and corruption in Ukraine are closely related. In doing this reports, we conducted our researches through books, journals, online materials, government websites and electronic newspapers. However, there were several limitations while conducting the study. There were only limited numbers of countries which have implemented GST successfully until today. In addition to that, most countries that adopted GST were developed countries such as Australia, Singapore and etc. There were limited numbers of Asian developing countries which has implemented GST. In conclusion, GST can be an effective indirect tax. To make it a success, effective educational programmes and private and public sector partnering is necessary. In planning and implementing the GST, countries like United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Singapore can be used as learning examples for Malaysia. The contributions of our tax systems, especially the consumption taxes to the development of our countrys socio-economic system Accoding to OECD (n.d.), the main purpose for the introduction of tax is to finance the public expenditures as well as addressing socioeconomic concerns. In the globalized market today, most of the companies and individuals are required to pay taxes. Malaysia has adopted a fiscal-like system for the past few decades. Malaysia taxation system comprises of direct and indirect taxation. Examples of direct taxation income and corporate tax whereas indirect taxation includes sales and services tax and also others. Refering to the table 1 below, in 2008, direct taxes accounted for about 51.4% of total taxes and 19.1% comes from indirect taxes (Zakariah and Sulaiman, n.d.). Out of this 19.1%, sales and services tax (consumption tax) accounted for 7.3% of the indirect taxes. Therefore, consumption tax does plays a vital role in total revenue in the country. Table 1: The breakdown of Indirect Tax Revenue in 2008 Table 1: The Gross National Product in Malaysia from 2005 to 2009 Source: http://www.tradechakra.com/economy/malaysia/gnp-of-malaysia-152.php Table 2: Gross National Income expressed in Purchasing Power Parity Dollars Source: http://www.google.com/publicdata?ds=wb-wdimet=ny_gnp_mktp_pp_cdidim=country:MYSdl=enhl=enq=gnp+malaysia Table 2: Gross National Income expressed in US dollars Source:http://www.google.com/publicdata?ds=wb-wdimet=ny_gdp_mktp_cdidim=country:MYSdl=enhl=enq=gdp+malaysia Correction of Market Failures Consumption tax in our country provides a way of changing the pattern of consumers demand by differentiating the prices of goods, this in turn affect their spending decisions. For example, demand for different types of transports will get affected by the total amount of duties charges. From this point, we can see that consumption tax in Malaysia is considered as an instrument in correcting related market failures, for example, externalities. Moreover, in this context, consumption tax is used as a tool in making the polluter pay as well as internalizing the costs of consumption. Increase Overall Productivity Consumption tax in Malaysia is said to have a lower negative impact on the work incentives. This is because sales and service tax leave the choices to the people and is unlikely to distort the alternatives that consumers have to between work and leisure. People tend to work harder when they are allowed to keep more of what they earn. This will then impact on the economic positively and increase the overall productivity of the country. As shown in the figure above, Malaysia GNP and GDP has been increasing over the past 20 years. Improve economic and social overheads Malaysian economy experienced the rapid growth on the GDP from US100Billion in 2002 to US221Billion in 2008. In addition, according to governments data, our country also sees the drop in budget deficit from 7.4% in 2009 to 5.6% in 2010. It is believed that the decrease in budget deficit mainly due to the revenue collection from tax and it is able to stimulate the economic growth by financing investment, which in turn generates higher income and employment through the multiplier effects. Thus, government is able to gain access to immediate rise in money and invest them in the economic and social overheads. In a developing country like Malaysia, consumption tax can be an important instrument of growth as it promotes capital formation, especially in the promotion of social overheads as well as infrastructure. The diagram below shows the importance of sales and service tax in contributing their part to the economy in the indirect tax form. The importance of GST to the governments fiscal policies and our countrys economy Despite the average surpluses of 2% during 1993-1997, Malaysia is brought back to deficit after financial crisis in 1997 (Mahbob Zakariah, nd). Year 2009 saw the biggest fiscal deficit. In responding to the fiscal pressures, Malaysia government focuses on importance of tax rates, an important element under fiscal policies, to alleviate the recession effects. Many developed countries such as US and UK often raise their taxes to overcome fiscal deficits. Often than not, fiscal imbalance tends to lower national savings, thus cause slower economic growth. In order to overcome the problem, government will need to reduce government expenditures and/or raising tax revenues. In fact, the International Monetary Fund reported that it is important for Malaysia to introduce Goods and Services Tax (The Star, 2010). The government managed to lower the fiscal deficit from 7.4% in 2009 to 5.6% in 2010 (The Star, 2010). Besides that, to avoid the middle-income trap, the introduction of GST would help with the socio economic development. An additional estimated RM1billion revenue collected from GST can be well spent and further improve the Malaysias development initiatives, such as transportation, healthcare, education and targeted added value activities. With this, the way GST is utilized will determine whether our country can achieve develped country status by year 2020. Fiscal Policies Create an effective management of tax system GST is imposed at the stages of production and distribution; therefore incorporate a self policing mechanism that lowers the possibility of revenue loss through tax evasion. The proposed GST model will not involve cascading/pyramiding affect (Mahbob Zakariah, nd). This is because tax levied on any goods is determined based on its final value, but not the total number of distribution channels that a particular good passes through. Moreover, in order to avoid the double taxation effect, the output tax to be paid will be offset against the input tax. Widen Malaysias tax base The introduction of GST alleviates the heavy reliance on direct taxes (for example, income tax) and petroleum tax, thus widen Malaysias tax base. Petroleum revenue is reported to be unsustainable in the long run as it is depleting (Mahbob Zakariah, nd).. However, the main issue here is that government has increased its dependence on petroleum revenue as shown in the diagram. When comparing against income tax, GST would be a much stable source of revenue as it is less vulnerable to economic uncertainties. GST is a consumption-based tax, an individuals concumption will determine the amount of tax ones pay. Economic Growth Attract foreign direct investments According to Zainal (2007), Malaysia has been engaging in activities that attract foreign direct investments but it is not fast enough. Koong (2010) reported that proposed GST in Malaysia would be able to allow for a further reduction in the current corporate and indirect tax rate, thus draw in more foreign direct investment to the country. This is because proposed GST would be able to provide a more broad-based tax collection and revenues. Currently, Malaysias corporate tax rate is relatively high compared to other neighbouring countries (Amin, 2009). This is one important key to achieve high-income developed status by year 2020. The introduction of GST assertively realizes high value added economic paradigm. In addition to this, with effective in reduction in corruption, Malaysias GDP will be improved. According to Datuk Akbar Ali (2010), a study showed that an increase of one point in the Corruption Perception Index (CPI) will attract FDI which is equivalent to 0.5percent of the G DP and pushed up the average income by 4 percent. Boost the growth of SMEs (Small Medium Enterprises) GST is not a progressive income tax and it is flat at the determined rate. Therefore, GST preserve the incentive to work and encourage the growth of small medium enterprises. According to Khoo (2010), in line with the proposed GST, it is also important to consider the broadening of tax allowances to include shopping malls, conventions and office buildings will help in reducing corporations burdens. This is especially for those SMEs which incurred high costs and risks in doing business with limited funds. Tax allowances will be able to allow them grow more quickly. Differences between Sales and Services tax structure and the proposed GST system The current sales and services tax is from 5% to 10% while the proposed GST is 4%. 1. Single versus multiple stage GST is charged on the consumption of goods and services at every stage of the supply chain while the current sales tax and service tax is levied at only one stage of the supply chain. 2. Goods and services subject to tax Both GST and Sales Tax operate on a negative concept all goods and services are subject to GST unless specifically exempted. Service tax, on the other hand, operates on a positive concept where only services that are specifically prescribed are taxable. The wider tax base of GST provides more revenue for government and simplifies the task of identifying taxable services under the service tax system. 3. Tax payment and accounting periods In existing structure, sales tax becomes due and payable when there is a sale. On the other hand, service tax is only due when payment is received, and where payment is not received, the tax is accounted for at the end of the 12-month period from the date of invoice issued. Time of supply determines when one should account for GST in the GST returns. The approach used by many countries when adopting GST is that a supply is considered to have taken place at the earliest of the following three events: the time an invoice is issued; or the time any payment is received by the supplier; or the time a taxable supply is made. The GST concept of time of supply is therefore generally wider and there will potentially be changes to the enterprises cash flows under the new tax. 4. Imported services and intangibles Presently, imported services are not subject to service tax. In many GST regimes, imported services are subject to GST through the concept of a reverse charge whereby a supply received from overseas is treated as being made by the recipient of the service rather than by the provider of the service overseas. The recipient of the supply is responsible for the output GST on the imported services. 5. Group registration Company can file consolidated GST returns via group registration to reduce their GST administration costs, where supplies made within a group would be disregarded for GST purposes. This resulted in better cash flow management for the group if goods and services are regularly supplied between group companies. On the other hand, the existing tax structures do not allow consolidated tax filings. In service tax, group relief is available for certain professional services when provided to companies within the same group and subject to certain limitations. The negative impacts of the proposed GST system to business entities and people Timing Problem The present climate of the Malaysian economy is not conducive for the implementation of new tax system. The impact will be contractionary as GDP drop 139% in 2010 compared to 2005 while inflation has been increasing from 2% in 2008 to 5.4% in 2009 due to increases of prices of major inputs like oil prices (CIA World Factbook). Negative impacts to people Currently only 1.8 million individuals from total of 12 million in the workforce paid tax for their salary, but with GST, the entire workforce will be required to pay tax (Malaysian Digest.com, 2010). People earning below average salary will be forced to spend extra annual expenditure in the midst of inflation due to the regressive nature of GST. It is predicted that a slight increase in the prices of goods and services is unavoidable. Although the GST will probably be 4%, the scope of goods and services affected by GST will be very much wider. Moreover, inefficient price control by government results in price hike by unscrupulous traders. This phenomenon is shown in the multiple-fold escalation in prices in almost all products as a result of slight increase in oil prices. Negative impacts to business Economy of Collection indirect and direct compliance cost: GST imposes additional compliance costs for businesses to have additional work to account for the tax, tracking of the input taxes paid, undertaking reconciliations and filings of GST returns (Zaid,2010). In addition, where a business has short credit periods from its suppliers, business need extra finances to purchase supplies when GST is first introduced, result in cash flow burden. Therefore GST is less effective according to Adam Smiths cannon of effective tax system in relation to economy of collection. Neutrality Altered consumer behaviour: One of G.W. Normans qualities of taxation depends on non-interference, i.e. a tax should not impact on the price or volume of commodities traded. Norman argued that value added tax are interferent, as they create imperfections in the market for goods, and in particular for preferences between imported and domestic produce. 90% of Malaysian is not in taxed category and this group of people have to pay taxes for their daily consumption if GST is implemented, which will dampen their spending mood. This would affect SMEs who depend on this group of customer base. Higher bank charges for credit card transactions as a result of GST implementation will raise prices in certain products, adversely affecting SMEs. Experiences in other countries have shown that customers generally go on a shopping spree shortly before the introduction of the tax, followed by a period of relative inactivity after the tax is introduced. Companies may seek extra financing to build up stock to cater for a pre-GST rush. However stock in hand may not be entitled to any input tax credit. Cash Flow issues: GST will hit the cash flow of SMEs, especially businesses with significant funds tied up in unpaid invoices. Businesses need to meet their immediate liabilities to suppliers, staff and the IRA, particularly around tax time. Some businesses were forced to adopt unfavourable ways such as higher deposits or stiffer terms of trade which make small businesses less competitive (Zaid,2010). This condition worsens if tax refund mechanism is not efficient. To register or not to register: Business not subject to the GST would not be entitled to claim the input tax credits on purchases. In a situation where the customers of the business are other GST registered businesses, the supplier may be obligated to license itself as it is likely that the customer would insist on buying from another registered person to enable him to claim the input tax credit (Zaid,2010). Consequently, these SMEs will have to charge higher prices to the customers, eroding their price competitiveness (Zaid,2010). A Supply-Demand Analysis of a GST-Taxed Market Deadweight loss happens if the income lost by the economy is greater than the governments income; the tax is inefficient. While distortions occur, GST are often considered superior because they distort incentives to invest, save and work less than most other types of taxation in other words, a GST discourages consumption rather than production (Zaid,2010). Hurdles to implement GST faced by government Government need to balance the conflict between simplicity and to cater for social needs. However, the more social needs are catered for, the more complex the tax becomes and the more costly it is for the Government to administer and for businesses to comply with it (Trade Chakra, 2010). Informal economy Emran and Stiglitz (2005) argue that VAT is likely to reduce rather than improve social welfare because informal economy like agriculture sector and unregistered business are able to escape commodity tax coverage dominates DTE (Developing and Transitional Economies). According to World Bank, informal economy constitutes 31% of Malaysian economy, almost double the percentage in other Asian countries such as Vietnam (15.6%) and Singapore (13%). The producers of close substitute of the formal VAT-liable commodity will get high profit without bearing tax while formal sector producer may get lower profit and bearing tax. As a result, resources will be channelled more into informal economy, causing inefficiency in resource allocation. Thus the potential tax base is rather narrow which reduce the growth and development. Therefore, achieving equity as proposed by Adam Smith in order to have an effective tax system is difficult through the implementation of VAT in a country that has significa nt informal sector. Lack of transparency PricewaterhouseCoopers Taxation Services Sdn Bhd senior executive director Wan Heng Choon said the lack of transparency bred uncertainty among the business community. The industry guides that will provide guidance of how the GST law will affect various industry sectors have not provided the certainty that was promised. Cost BN government aims to gain RM1 billion through GST, but within the implementation process, a sum of RM222 million has been allocated as initial cost to ensure the smooth and effective implementation of GST system in Malaysia. The allocation will cover the cost of developing the GST computerisation system at RM139 million and the additional operations cost of RM83 million for the agency implementing the system, Malaysian Customs Department. The maintenance cost each year is estimated at RM8.5 million (Office of the Prime Minister, 2010). Rate of tax and exemption The government should carefully choose the most suitable tax rate so that the tax will not burden the poor. If the government offers lower tax rate on necessities with the intention to help the poor, in fact this will benefit the rich more because they will spend relatively less of their income. But high rate in luxury goods trigger the intention to lower tax liability either legally or illegally. Choosing the most suitable tax rate and determine the goods that should exempt are not easy for government and may take long time. Fraud Because exports are generally zero-rated, this is often where GST fraud occurs. In Europe, the main source of problems is called carousel fraud. Large quantities of valuable goods (often microchips or mobile phones) are transported from one member state to another. During these transactions, some companies owe GST, others acquire a right to reclaim GST. The first companies, called missing traders go bankrupt without paying. The second group of companies can pump money straight out of the national treasuries. Reasons of initial failure in GST implementation in two countries example Value Added Tax (VAT) works better than other general sales tax in many of the developed and developing countries. This does not mean that VAT always works well. There are many different reasons for the above conclusion, however only two main issues will be highlighted in the following examples. They are problems with VAT design which were left behind by the policy process and how VAT plays its roles particularly in the low-income countries. Is the country capable enough to administer VAT? The case study below will discuss the problems faced by Ukraine when implementing VAT. A case study in Ukraine Like many other developing countries, VAT has been the workhorse in generating revenue in Ukraine. The way of VAT works will determine the performance of Ukraines entire fiscal system. However, table below shows that Ukraines VAT was in trouble since the tax fully came into effect in late 1990s. The collection inefficiency of VAT lead to the decrease in revenue with respect to the countrys GDP, thus widen the gap between actual revenue and potential revenue (Bird, 2005). In general, as GDP grows, VAT yield should also rises, with at least at the same rate as GDP. However, when Ukraines real GDP rose by 49% from 1998 to 2004, the VAT to GDP ratio was decreased by 33%. Moreover, the increasing dependence of VAT on imports caused the collection of VAT on domestic consumption fell markedly by 4.3% to 1.4% of GDP in 2004 (Bird and Gendron, 2006). It is very clear that VAT system in Ukraine is less efficient in generating revenue for the government. According to Bird and Gendron (2006), the decline in VAT to GDP ratio before 2002 could be explained by the ineffectiveness in the Ukraines tax administration, for example the erosion of tax base in the form of increased exemptions which started immediately once the VAT was introduced. There were just too many exemptions in the VAT. For example, many food processing were taxed at a special rate while later on were allowed to claim the refund. The VAT system later became more complicated as it seemed to give ways for possible evasions and corruptions. However, there was no base changes occurred during 2003-2004 that could possibly explain the decline. There were many Ukraine taxpayers tend to evade when they were trapped within the VAT system. They could possibly hide in the hidden economy. Meanwhile, the VAT evasion, hidden economy size and corruption in Ukraine are closely related. Recently, there was a study found that there was a positive correlation between evasion level and Transparency International (TI) index of perception of corruption (Bird, 2005). Additionally, the evasion in Ukraine was twice the corruption index, which was about 38%. This not only reflects the weak administration but also weak management in structural problems such as the prevalence of underground economy. For example, just two years after the introduction of GST, there were over 83% of the Ukraine VAT registrants filing tax returns annually. In addition, there were also problems with tax administration that related to the application of VAT at the border. A country like Ukraine which is unable to apply VAT on imports properly is said to be facing higher level of difficulties in applying the system to domestic economy. Most of the time, the initial legislation of VAT was closely related to standard international model with participation of international experts. It may look simple at the initial stage, however, as time goes; many countries found that VAT tends to become much complex and difficult to manage. The case study below will discuss the problems faced by Pakistan when implementing VAT. A case study in Pakistan In 1990, Pakistan introduced the GST for the country to replace its Sales Tax Act. As a developing country, Pakistan decided to take the initiative and move a big step forward to introduce GST as GST was said to have futuristic dimensions and political recognition. However, several issues were addressed in relation to the introduction of GST, which remain part of continuously reform process. Undeniably, the introduction of GST in the country has brought about significant improvement in the revenue collection (as shown in the table below). Despite the good performance in revenue collection, there were several shortcomings that were addressed. Multiple Tax Rates In 1992, Pakistan introduced VAT at the rate of 12.5%. In 1995, the rate was then raised to 18% in order reduce the budget deficit by meeting the need for extra revenue. However, there was great pressure from taxpayers in 1998, thus the rate was again reduced to 15%. While on the other hand, industrial raw materials were imposed with a higher rate of 20% (Shahid, n.d.). Moreover, in 1999, a penalty system was established in which a 3% tax was imposed on the supplies made by the registered body to unregistered body. Nevertheless, all these decisions have made the VAT system much complicated with multiple tax rates and create many difficulties for the tax administrative. Additionally, cost of compliance has also increased respectively for the taxpayers (Ehtisham, 2010). The rate was then stabilized at 15% in 2004 (Shahid, n.d.). Registration When GST was first introduced in Pakistan, taxpayers were all required to submit a large amount of documents needed for VAT registration purposes. This then cause unnecessary delays during the physical verification process by the VAT staff as there were just too many documents (Ehtisham, 2010). However, a centralized Registration system was introduced in July 2004 in which it utilized Risk Based Registration Module to handle the paper based registration problems (Shahid, n.d.). Tax Compliance Low tax compliance in Pakistan is another issue that has to be looked into. There were only about half of the tax registrants file their monthly returns. This is mainly due to the negative relationship between the tax administration and tax registrants as mentioned earlier under the registration section (Ehtisham, 2010). The facilitation strategy was then designed and the taxpayers were educated on the related strategy in order to overcome the problem. Adjudication There were numbers of adjudication after the introduction of GST in Pakistan due to unaffordable rate. There was a markedly increase in the number of appeals when the appellate foras were introduced (Shahid, n.d.).. The costs involved were time and revenues. The cost of doing business for taxpayers has been significantly increased due to the involvement in the settlement of the cases. The issue has been addressed and discussed for a couple of years before any action was taken. According to Shahid (n.d.), tax administration finally came up with Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanism in which consists of an independent judicial committee to deal with the cases. Conclusion The main purpose for introducing GST is to make the current taxation system more comprehensive, efficient, effective, transparent and business friendly. GST is expected to increase government income and dependence on oil revenues is hoped to be lessen. Besides, GST is aimed to reduce public administration deficit which hit a more than 20-year high of 7.4 per cent of gross domestic product in 2009 (Zaid). Additional RM1bil in revenue will be received for the first year, while the business sector would save RM4.1bil and export sectors would save RM1.4bil (Zaid). The potential negative impact of the proposed GST system is the problem of price hike as a result of inefficient price control by government. GST also imposes additional compliance costs for businesses to have additional work to track input taxes paid, and undertaking reconciliations and filings of GST returns. Malaysians who are not in taxed category have to start paying taxes for their daily consumption, which will dampen their spending mood. As a developing country, it is important for Malaysia to review its fiscal policy continuously. To enhance the competitiveness in the international market, Malaysia must always prepare itself for any possible economic uncertainties. Malaysian government should always make sure sufficient revenues are raised for the country with minimum impacts on its people and resources, while at the same time improve the living standards of the poors. Moreover, government should always seek for ways to lower poverty level in the country, thus a more equitable society can be achieved. In conclusion, Malaysia govenrment and the people in the country have not get themselves ready for the tax reform. There should be continuously review of the policy and the tax reform should only be implemented once the impacts on the country and people is minimized.

Toyota Motor Vehicles: SWOT Analysis

Toyota Motor Vehicles: SWOT Analysis Toyota Motor Vehicles Background Toyota Motor Corporation is a famous Japanese multinational corporation, and is considered the worlds second largest automaker of automobiles. The founder of Toyota is Kiichiro Toyoda, who born in 1894, and the son of Sakichi Toyoda, who was popular in the invention of the automatic loom. Toyota motors became a mainstay of Japan economy 1n 1960. And it get great growth in this time. And the annual sale of TMC in Japan was about one million dollar I 1962 Introduction Toyota Motor Corporation, being a multinational is the worlds largest automaker in terms of sales volume. As of 2008, Toyota employs approximately 316,000 people around the world in comparison to second ranked automaker General Motors 266,000 employees. The company is mainly engaged in automobile business and financial business. In end of 1989, Toyota started its manufacturing in Europe by having two main manufacturing plants working in UK. It provides all ranges of cars from mini vehicles to big trucks. Toyota Philosophy Toyotas management philosophy has evolved from the companys origins and has been reflected in the terms Lean Manufacturing and Just In Time Production, which it was instrumental in developing. The Toyota Way has four components: 1) Long-term thinking as a basis for management decisions, 2) a process for problem-solving, 3) adding value to the organization by developing its people, and 4) recognizing that continuously solving root problems drives organizational learning. They deals in wide range of cars like: Avensis Previa Dyna CBU Camry Coaster Land cruiser Prado Fortuner Toyota Motors main competitors: General Motors (GM): It was the worlds largest selling vehicle producer but their market shares were decline in the 80s and mid 90s. Ford: It was the second largest motor car selling and profit making company in the world right behind the GM Company. Chrysler: It was the third main competitor of Toyota. The company was almost gone bankrupt during the 80s but their government support their company and saved them. Main Body SWOT Analysis (S)trengths One of the main biggest strengths of Toyota is the JUST IN TIME concept. Just in Time spirit implies to the two opposing forces of providing fast and flexible response, and yet building mechanisms and systems that are efficient and waste-free. The concept is to provide the right product and information, at the right time, in the right amount, in the right manner, while maintaining high standards of efficiency and cost control. JIT has resulted in ZERO inventory and enormous saving in the cost. The company has recorded a strapping financial performance in recent years. Toyota Motors revenues increased at a compound annual growth rate of 11.1% during 2004-08.The Company also had witnessed a considerable increase in profitability. During 2004-08, the average operating profit margin and net profit margin of the company stood at 9.1% and 6.5%, respectively. The strong financial performance of the company has contributed to its market domination. This, in turn, enhances investors confidence in the company for investment. Toyota is one of the top leading automotive brands in the world. In the annual ranking of top 100 global brands by BusinessWeek and Interbrand in 2008, Toyota figured in the sixth position. According to the survey, Toyotas brand value has increased by 6%, to reach $34.1 billion in 2008. In addition, it is the highest ranking automotive brand name in the world. It is ranked well ahead of its competitors like Mercedes, BMW, Honda, Ford, Hyundai, Porsche and Nissan. For instance, in the same period, Ford has been faced with a number of troubles, including a failure to meet its goals for SUV mileage gains or to exploit its well-regarded Escape hybrid; subsequently, the brand value of Ford fell by 12%, to $7.9 billion in 2008. Toyotas luxury car, Lexus, also has an independent ranking in the top 100 global brands. The brand value of Lexus was around $3.6 billion, with a ranking of 90. Some of the other popular product brands of the company include Corolla, Camry, Sienna, Prius and Scion. The companys strong brand image gives it considerable competitive advantage and helps the company to register higher sales growth in domestic, as well as in international markets. In 2003 Toyota has beaten its rival Ford into third spot, to become the Worlds second largest carmaker with 6.78 million units. The company is still behind rivals General Motors with 8.59 million units in the same period. Its strong industry position is based upon a number of factors including a diversified product range, highly targeted marketing and a commitment to turn manufacturing and quality. The company makes a large range of vehicles for both private customers and commercial organizations, from the small Yaris to large trucks. The company uses marketing techniques to identify and satisfy customer needs. Its brand is a household name. The company also maximizes profit through efficient manufacturing approaches (e.g. Total Quality Management). (W)eaknesses Usually big setup faces problems during oversupply as in it the company need to make sure that it is the models that consumers want. Toyota markets most of its products in the US and in Japan due to which they are always exposed to fluctuating economic and political conditions. Perhaps that is the reason that now the company is beginning to shift its attentions to the emerging Chinese market. Toyota Motor provides pension benefits and other post-retirement health and life insurance benefits to employees. During the Year 2008, the company incurred post retirement benefit expenses of approximately $709.1m. The company also paid a total of approximately $671.5m for the post retirement benefit plans during 2007. Furthermore, by the end of March 2008, the companys projected pension and post-retirement benefit obligations stood at approximately $14,865.9m as compared to the planned assets of approximately $11,256.4m, resulting into an unfunded status of approximately $3,609.5m. Sizeable unfunded post retirement benefits would force the company to make periodic cash contributions towards bridging the gap between post retirement benefits obligations and planned assets, which would reduce cash available for growth plans. The company needs to keep producing the cars in order to retain its operational efficiency. Car plants represent a huge investment in expensive fixed costs, as well as the high costs of training and retaining labor. So if the car market experiences a down turn, the company could see over capacity. If on the other hand the car market experiences an upturn, then the company may miss out on potential sales due to under capacity i.e. it takes time to accommodate. This is a typical problem with high volume car manufacturing companies. (O)pportunities Worldwide demand for light hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) is estimated to reach 4.0 million units by 2015. Rising energy costs and increased emissions regulations are likely to increase the demand for HEVs, as hybrid engines are more fuel efficient and less polluting than conventional gasoline and diesel engines. The primary markets for HEVs will be within Triad countries (the US, Western Europe and Japan), although the quickly growing Chinese market is also expected to experience relatively strong demand for these fuel efficient and environmentally friendly vehicles. Toyota Motor Company is keen to capitalize on the growing demand for hybrid electric vehicles. The company has spent a large amount of money for the development of hybrid vehicles over the years. The accumulative total of Toyota Motors hybrid vehicle sales reached 1.5 million in June 2008. Furthermore, the company plans to expand its hybrid lineup and achieve annual sales of one million hybrid vehicles by early 2010. For this, the company plans to introduce demand-creating products. The company also launched models such as the Prius and LS600h hybrids at the 2008 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition, held at the new China International Exhibition Center in Beijing. The companys emphasis on hybrid technology will enable it to capitalize on the positive market trends in this segment to enhance its market position Lexus and Toyota now have a reputation for manufacturing environmentally friendly vehicles. Lexus has RX 400h hybrid, and Toyota has it Prius. Both are based upon advance technologies developed by the organization. Such moves can only firm up Toyotas interest and investment in hybrid RD. Toyota Motor has launched several new models in year 008. For example, in April 2008, Toyota Company has displayed a total of 50 concept vehicles at the 2008 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition. The company has launched its models including the compactYaris, the new Vios and Lexus LX570 SUV, along with concept cars such as the iQ compact and the personal mobility vehicle ‘i-REAL. The company also displayed models such as the Prius and LS600h hybrids and the GOA (Global Outstanding Assessment) collision-safety body represented by a Camry and Crown models. Besides helping to garner additional revenues, new models will also help the company to revamp its aging model line up Toyota is going to target the urban youth market. The company has launched its new Aygo, which is targeted at the streetwise youth market and captures (or attempts to) the nature of dance and DJ culture in a very competitive segment. The vehicle itself is a unique one. Convertible, with models extending at their rear! The narrow segment is notorious for it narrows margins and difficulties for branding. (T)hreats The worldwide automotive market is highly competitive. Toyota Motor Company is facing tough competition from other automotive manufacturers in its various markets. The competition among various auto players is likely to exaggerate in light of continuing globalization and consolidation in the worldwide automotive industry. The factors affecting competition include product quality and features, the amount of time required for innovation and development, pricing, reliability, safety, fuel economy, customer service and financing terms. Increased competition may lead the company to lower vehicle unit sales and increased inventory, which may result in a further downward price pressure and can negatively affect the companys financial condition and results of operations. The European Union (EU) Commission and the EU Parliament have adopted a directive that establishes increasingly stringent emission standards for passenger and light commercial vehicles for model years 2005 and thereafter. Under the directive, manufacturers will be responsible for the emission performance of these vehicles for five years or 100,000 kilometers, whichever occurs first. A more stringent Emission standard (EURO 5) is also on the table of the EU legislative bodies and is likely to be effective from 2009. This will create more tough competition to work in EU as they would require more to concentrate on quality which will increase their cost and will lead to increase in prices by which the other competitors in the area would take advantage as their home land? As with any other car manufacturer, Toyota is facing great deal of competitive rivalry in the car market. Competition is increasing almost on the daily basis, with new entrants coming into the market from China, South Korea and new plants in Eastern Europe. The company is also exposed to any movement in the price of raw materials such as rubber, steel and fuel. The key economies in the Pacific, the US and Europe is also experiencing slowdowns. These economic factors are potential threats for Toyota. PEST Analysis (P)olitical Toyota had a lot of help from the local government, including tax breaks. The company is likewise linked closely to the policies ofgovernments, the earnings of banks. Toyota is currently dominated by little more than a handful of firms, each wielding colossal financial, emotional and political power. The companys approach to dealing with political institutions has not always been brilliant. It tends to be good on technical issues, although it has not always fully presented the longer-term options, in order to make the choices and their implications clear. Toyota is expected to sell Indiana and its assets to the world. (E)conomic For much of the developed world, Toyota Company is a pillar company in auto mobile business, a flag of economic progress. The Toyota Company has been a core company, a unique economic phenomenon, which has dominated the twentieth century. However, the automobile industry including the Toyota now suffers from a series of structural schisms and has become riddled with contradictions and economic discontinuities. For the capital markets and the finance sector, it has lost a lot of its significance, as a result of ever declining profits and stagnant sales. The proliferation of products means that it has become hopelessly wasteful of economic resources. While all these and more sound like a very gloomy assessment of such a vast economic phenomenon, the industry is not in the end despondent. A different future is possible for the industry, a highly desirable one. (S)ocial and Cultural Toyotas ability to bring to market world-class vehicles depends, in large part, on the craftsmanship and hard work. As part of the development in automotive industry, the Toyota Company actually affects the society as a whole. It employs millions of people directly, tens of millions indirectly. Its products have transformed society, bringing undreamed-of levels of mobility, changing the ways people live and work. The social value of the additional mobility that this industry brings involves the value of the people being able to commute over longer distances easily, among many others. There are, on the other hand, particular social issues to address in many developing countries, often those that are the result of an undertone of religious faith. Toyota company has the role to play in helping develop the mobility of such countries and it can be achieved at an acceptable social cost of the country is prepared to learn the necessary lessons from those who have traveled this route before it, and to make the necessary investments. (T)echnology In 1994, the Toyota Company had given its employees the challenge to bring up with new technological change in cars. The car for the 21st century. For this purpose a special team was developed to make the car. This team was named as G21 team. In 1997; Toyotas G21 team made a car which is both fuel efficient and environment friendly as well. They made a hybrid car named as Prius. This car was a major success in Japan at that time. Till that time Toyota hasnt introduced this technology outside Japan. In 2001 Toyota introduces hybrid cars worldwide. Hybrid car can be run on engine or battery or both. The production of first hybrid car in Europe was started in 2010. Success of hybrid car can be shown by the fact that over 3,000,000 cars were sold worldwide. There are different models of hybrid cars had been made so far which are as follows, NHW10 Model (1997-2000) NHW11 Model (2001-2003) NHW20 Model (2004-2009) NHW30 Model (2009-till present) Recommendations Toyota is being one of the top motor vehicle producers in the world still needs to do a lot more improvements regarding their quality and services by taking seriously the consumer complaints Since last few months the company is facing some quality issues which need to be rectify soon because some researchers are also pointing out these which is creating a bad impact for the company and its market share. Toyota also had added some experts containing both consumers and experts. They had been recommended by their union back in Japan to review their quality but they are not directly affiliated with the Toyota Company. They also need to review these members and had to directly affiliate them with Toyota. Toyotas main hazard in their success had been their big recall of its cars all over the world. The company had failed to identify and solve this issue and this can create big impact in their sales and perception of their customers while purchasing car. So they need to rectify and solve this problem quickly so that the image of the company can be retained. Moreover they also should make a proper consumer profile on their website as well. This will enable them to easily identify its consumers and make the strategy for marketing according to that. The company had used social media like face book and twitter for the consumers. It is the demand of the time of these days but the problem is that they are not making good use of it. Their participation through these is almost zero. If they improve on that participation and make it more active then that will help the company a lot and can be a good marketing source as well.

The Female Manager :: essays research papers

Reasearch Report I have decided to write my report on the female manager, identifying three women who are presidents or CEO’s of companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange, providing information on their background and how they made it to the top. The first female I wanted to talk about is Muriel Siebert. She is currently CEO of Siebert Financial Corporation. She has had a chair on the National Women's Business Council and she made history as the first woman to buy a seat on the New York Stock Exchange in 1967. I hope she fits in the category, because I think this lady is wonderful. Muriel Siebert has been called "The First Woman of Finance." Among other firsts, she is the first woman to own a seat on the New York Stock Exchange and the first to head one of its member firms, Muriel Siebert & Co., Inc. She took a leave from her firm in 1977 to serve five years as the first woman Superintendent of Banking for the State of New York. She is known as an outspoken speaker who pulls no punches in lectures, panels and talk shows. She often exhorts industry to utilize women more aggressively. "American business will find that women executives can be a strong competitive weapon against Japan and Germany and other countries that still limit their executive talent pool to the male 50 percent of their population." Muriel Siebert has advised, "The men of the top of industry and government should be more willing to risk sharing leadership with women and minority members who are not merely clones of their white male buddies. In these fast-changing times we need the different viewpoints and experiences, we need the enlarged talent bank. The real risk lies in continuing to do things the way they've always been done." Muriel Siebert not only proves what she preaches, but she practices it too. Her best-known gamble made historic waves in 1967 when she applied to become the first woman member of the New York Stock Exchange. Although she had risen to a partnership in a leading Wall Street brokerage firm and had made big money for colleagues, her effort was patronized, ridiculed or openly opposed by many men on Wall Street. She was turned down by nine of the first ten men she asked to sponsor her application. Before considering her for membership, the Stock Exchange imposed a new condition: she needed a letter from a bank saying they would lend her $300,000 of the near-record $445,000 seat price.

Got Internet Pornography? Essay -- Internet Pornography Essays

Got Internet Pornography? Pornography is viewed differently by everyone. Is pornography as bad as it is made out to be? What if it is that persons outlet from reality, just like smoking, drinking, snowboarding, skiing. Is it hurting anyone. Some say it is degrading to women. Do those women that do it think it is degrading. If they did they wouldn’t do it. There are several different types of pornography in the world. It started in art where we had sculptures of Aphrodite naked, we had many artists who painted pictures of nude women. But people look at that and say oh how pretty. But in the present day we have printing presses, we have internet, and people try to make their own art with their bodies and people criticize them. Why? How? Are they jealous because they don’t feel comfortable with showing their bodies to people. Pornography has taken a drastic turn since the internet. I will be talking about the pros and cons for pornography on the internet, the increase in child pornography, the boom ing of pornography on the internet ,and the confusion with all the different laws in our society. â€Å"Pornography in the 90's has been on a steady increase. With the popularity of the internet growing daily, pornography has also grown. Pornography has NOT however grown to the Herculean proportions which many believe. The industry itself according to Forbes is 'at best $520 million' (Forbes.com) not the $10 billion which is a false statistic, also according to Forbes.†(http://www.eden.rutgers.edu/%7Eskwong/pornography/internet.html). I believe that pornography on the internet is a good idea because you can monitor it easier than monitoring those hidden magazines that your kids somehow always find them. This way you don’t have to go to the s... ...tables that show from a survey about how many people have visited sex sites broken down to male female, born again Christians, married, single, living together, divorced, and widowed. These graphs will show that pornography is not that dangerous, and is harmless. Although it has it’s pros and cons I am for pornography, it gives a person that escape from reality like everyone needs once in a while. On the down side I am and will always be against child pornography on some degree. Younger than 16 I am against it totally but 16 that is a gray area for me because when I was 18 years old my girlfriend was 16 years old. So it’s like looking at porn but in the flesh. That’s why I say they should make up their minds about the age. Either you can give consent to get pictures taken of you or you can’t give sex until you are 18. It’s one or the other it can’t be both. Got Internet Pornography? Essay -- Internet Pornography Essays Got Internet Pornography? Pornography is viewed differently by everyone. Is pornography as bad as it is made out to be? What if it is that persons outlet from reality, just like smoking, drinking, snowboarding, skiing. Is it hurting anyone. Some say it is degrading to women. Do those women that do it think it is degrading. If they did they wouldn’t do it. There are several different types of pornography in the world. It started in art where we had sculptures of Aphrodite naked, we had many artists who painted pictures of nude women. But people look at that and say oh how pretty. But in the present day we have printing presses, we have internet, and people try to make their own art with their bodies and people criticize them. Why? How? Are they jealous because they don’t feel comfortable with showing their bodies to people. Pornography has taken a drastic turn since the internet. I will be talking about the pros and cons for pornography on the internet, the increase in child pornography, the boom ing of pornography on the internet ,and the confusion with all the different laws in our society. â€Å"Pornography in the 90's has been on a steady increase. With the popularity of the internet growing daily, pornography has also grown. Pornography has NOT however grown to the Herculean proportions which many believe. The industry itself according to Forbes is 'at best $520 million' (Forbes.com) not the $10 billion which is a false statistic, also according to Forbes.†(http://www.eden.rutgers.edu/%7Eskwong/pornography/internet.html). I believe that pornography on the internet is a good idea because you can monitor it easier than monitoring those hidden magazines that your kids somehow always find them. This way you don’t have to go to the s... ...tables that show from a survey about how many people have visited sex sites broken down to male female, born again Christians, married, single, living together, divorced, and widowed. These graphs will show that pornography is not that dangerous, and is harmless. Although it has it’s pros and cons I am for pornography, it gives a person that escape from reality like everyone needs once in a while. On the down side I am and will always be against child pornography on some degree. Younger than 16 I am against it totally but 16 that is a gray area for me because when I was 18 years old my girlfriend was 16 years old. So it’s like looking at porn but in the flesh. That’s why I say they should make up their minds about the age. Either you can give consent to get pictures taken of you or you can’t give sex until you are 18. It’s one or the other it can’t be both.

Sectionalism Due to Western Expansion

The Antebellum period from 1800 to 1850 marked a time of sectionalism in American history. Furthermore, new territories gained during western expansion added to this conflict between different sections of America. Southern states wanted new slave territories, while the North wanted to contain the spread of slavery. While Western expansion contributed to growing sectional tensions between the North and South from 1800-1820, sectionalism intensified significantly from 1820-1850. Since the turn of the nineteenth century, Western territorial expansion started to increase a sense of sectionalism throughout America.President Jefferson obtained the Louisiana purchase from Napoleon in 1803, gaining unfamiliar territory West of the Mississippi River. As Lewis and Clark explored the area, others began to populate it, slowly leading to increased tensions between the North and the South. Soon an act was passed stating that territories with a certain number of inhabitants would be added to the un ion as newly developed states. Furthermore, During the Adams-Onis treaty with Spain, Florida was peacefully acquired as a state in America, which also increased tension.Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, and King Cotton increased the South’s dependence on slaves to sustain the supply and demand of cotton, while the North favored the containment of slavery; This difference between the territories regarding slavery directly contributed to the sense of sectionalism shared throughout the nation. However the issue of slavery would be postponed due to the War of 1812, and for a while afterwards, America’s shared sense of nationalism overpowered their shared sense of sectionalism.Around the time of 1820, America’s pride in their victory in the war of 1812 was wearing off, and the balance of nationalism and sectionalism among the nation shifted primarily due to Westward expansion. The Missouri Compromise of 1820, introduced by Henry Clay, allowed for both Maine and Missou ri to be admitted into the union on condition that Missouri became a slave state, as well as banning slavery above the thirty-sixth parallel. Any state admitted into the Union bellow this line would decide the legality of slavery for their new state, by popular sovereignty.This temporarily maintained the balance of slave states and free states in the Union, while increasing sectionalism throughout America. Neither the North or South wanted the other section to have more states favoring their own slavery ideals, in fear of biased representation in the Senate. Furthermore, sectionalism was demonstrated by the fact that congress felt the need to implement â€Å"The Gag rule†; This disallowed congress from discussing the issue of slavery for the next thirty years (while only lasting a decade).Though members of the house tried to pass the Wilmot proviso, which would ban slavery in newly acquired Mexican territories, Southerners naturally opposed this. Disagreements over how to dec ide the newly acquired land’s position on slavery, further intensified sectionalism between the North and South. At one point the South even tried to pass the Ostend Manifesto in an attempt to purchase Cuba from Spain, and admit it into the Union as a slave state.Although this effort failed, it strongly represents the intense sectionalism during the time: As an entire portion of the country acted autonomously to secure an additional state to gain power over their Northern neighbors. Finally, the compromise of 1850 was passed, declaring popular sovereignty as the determining factor of the position of slavery among the land gained from Mexico. Moreover, this compromise enforced a fugitive slave law, allowing the South to collect runaway slaves, abolished the slave trade in Washington D. C. , and admitted California as a free state.Although Congress implemented countless compromises to secure the unionization of America, their efforts proved futile, as sectionalism prevailed and the United States grew closer to an inevitable Civil War. Western expansion during the first half of the nineteenth century, along with increased tensions between the North and South due to slavery, directly increased the sense of sectionalism between the two regions. The controversy over controlled land transformed the nation’s intense sense of nationalism into an even more intense sense of sectionalism, leading to a Civil War only fifty years later.

Theories on Children’s Cognitive Development & Case Studies Illustrating Them

Gleaning insights proposed by the earliest psychologists like Jean Piaget, socio-cultural theorists like Lev Vygotsky, radical behaviorists like B. F. Skinner and other well-known psychologists like Howard Gardner, who challenged the earlier views on children’s cognitive development, can be very important. By drawing insights and gaining a better understanding of how children’s thought processes are formed, as well as the factors that influence them, and the overall impact on children, parents, caretakers, educators, and therapists find themselves in a better position to guide and help growing kids achieve their optimum potential. In most of the theories set forth , factors like genetics and the environment or outside influences come into play. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, who formed his theories after conducting actual observations of kids, opined, â€Å"The mind of the child is not that of a miniature adult†¦ the mind develops by forming schemas that help us assimilate our experiences and that must occasionally be altered to accomplish new information. In this way, children progress from the sensorimotor simplicity of the infant to more complex stages of thinking† (Myers 1989: 85). This theory, which presupposes that children’s cognitive skills develop spontaneously, is highlighted by the different developmental stages to which children’s learning must adjust. Most teachers rely on Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory which, in essence, maintains that â€Å"the reasoning processes of children at various ages†¦ cognitive development proceeds in four genetically determined stages that always follow the same sequential order† (Child Development Theories, n. d. ). The Piagetian theory boils down to the fact that children must not be forced to absorb concepts. Instead, knowledge and learning must take place at the designated time or age of the child. Even if they undergo the same stages – infancy, early childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, and so on, individuals, of course, exhibit varying capabilities or rate of cognitive development. Piaget presupposed that children gradually find out what there is to learn about the objects and people around them through a gradual learning process. Nothing must be foisted on young minds. Instead, the young mind should be allowed to form relationships and learn through a stage-by-stage assimilation of concepts and facts. The focus is on the knowledge learned, then. Most pre-schools find the Piagetian theory quite applicable and useful. In fact, the Piagetian theory has been widely used as underlying structure or foundation for child education & care in America and other parts of the world. There are some educators or schools, though, which combine the Piagetian concept on children’s cognitive development with other theories like the socio-cultural theory set forth by Russian developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky, to let children realize their full potential. Vygotsky held that â€Å"cognitive processes are formed in the course of socio-cultural activities†¦ the individual comes into possession of a variety of cognitive processes engendered by different activities† (Kozulin, n. d. ) and with the guidance of a learned individual. â€Å"A knowledgeable person can help to add meaning to what is familiar to the child when he or she enters the child's zone of proximal development (ZPD), that place for learning located somewhere between the child's present understanding and potential understanding† (Steele 2001). Simply put, children’s cognitive skills are hastened when they come into contact with more knowledgeable elders, or more experienced, older mentors. There may be cases when even other kids of the same age but with greater intellectual capacity may help shape or form a slow-learning child’s understanding of basic concepts like music or the alphabet. The difference between the child’s own cognitive development and his potential to assimilate greater knowledge is the zone of proximal development. When schoolage kids interact and talk to and help each other learn, while also listening attentively to what their teacher says to them, they enter the zone of proximal development. In contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky laid greater emphasis in the way a child can utilize the joint approach or co-mingling with a well-informed adult in order to achieve full learning potential. Cases of teachers teaching young children to play a musical instrument like the piano may illustrate both the Piagetian concept of learning and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory. A child falling under the pre-operational stage, correlating to children in the age bracket of two to seven years, who is tinkering with the piano is still in the process of mastering symbols and will not really learn how to play the instrument well on his own. An adult’s expert guidance will jumpstart the child’s learning process. On the other hand, the piano teacher must prepare lessons that will suit the age of the child, or his developmental stage. Indeed, it can be noted that Piaget’s cognitive development theory has been used as jump-off point by his contemporaries and succeeding psychologists. One of those who challenged the Piagetian concept and maintained that a child’s cognitive ability is but one aspect of development is Howard Gardner. The latter proposed that individuals have â€Å"a number of domains of potential intellectual competence which they are in the position to develop, if they are normal and if the appropriate stimulating factors are available† (Gardner 2004: 287). Musical intelligence is one of the kinds of intelligence that Gardner said kids may cultivate. The example of a piano teacher giving a child his/her first set of piano lessons may encompass both the Piagetian concept, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, and Howard Gardner’s theory on multiple intelligence. As far as Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory is concerned, it runs counter to the Piagetian theory. Gardner believed in the vast potential each child has. He surmised that at any one instance, the well-nurtured child can be at different stages, honing his/her latent abilities – whether in spatial reasoning or body-kinesthetic or interpersonal skills, intrapersonal sensitivity, linguistic or musical inclinations. Even at a young age, children may nurture any of these multiple intelligences. A two-year-old child, for example, may be exposed to the piano playing of parents, and a couple of years later made to attend group lessons to observe, such that by the time the same child reaches the pre-teen years, he/she would have already developed a keen musical appreciation. Unlike the Piagetian method focus which tends to focus on test scores or the knowledge acquired per se, Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory focuses on forming â€Å"a strong, positive and attractive character† (Gardner 2004: 374). In the case of the child who grows up with musically inclined parents and eventually nurtures the talent , the resulting remarkable piano performance, is actually just a means to creating the child’s well-rounded character. Nonetheless, Piaget’s cognitive development concept has long been considered a universal learning theory which has found its way in numerous preschools all over the world. If most preschool classroom settings vividly illustrate Piaget’s cognitive developmental concept, particularly in the pre-operational stage, a clear-cut example of Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory is the traditional education or cultural transmission taking place in most rural communities across the world. Let us take, for instance, the case of oral narratives about ancestral heroes and events transmitted by older males to their young in Ethiopian rural communities. â€Å"Children who sit patiently and silently on the periphery of the story-telling circle gradually absorb the cultural content and verbal technique (which) lasts for hours and constitutes an integral element of everyday life. † (Kozulin, n. d. ). By relying on their elders for their socio-cultural assimilation of ideas, the children very well mirror Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory. An adult comes into the picture to impart greater learning at a quicker pace than if the children were to come across the same body of knowledge on their own. The traditional oral transmission of culture such as that perpetuated in the Ethiopian village, however, is no longer practiced in most other societies. Written records have supplanted the oral tradition. In his book, â€Å"Frames of Mind – The Theory of Multiple Intelligences,† Gardner cited numerous examples of people and situations affecting children’s cognitive learning skills. One of these is the structured method inspired by Japanese violinist Shinichi Suzuki to teach kids to learn music. Hinged on the basic principle that kids have an innate ability which â€Å"can be developed and enhanced through a nurturing environment† (The Suzuki Method 2005), the Suzuki Method lays emphasis on other intervening factors that may affect how young students learn music or instrument playing. These factors include starting lessons at an early age; recognizing just how important listening to music is; getting a first-hand grasp in learning how to play an instrument even before learning how to read; parental participation; well-trained teachers who instill quality teaching standard; realizing the importance of communicating and socially interacting with other children (The Suzuki Method 2005). Gardner also cited the method of imparting learning in traditional African bush society, wherein â€Å"the youngsters are divided into groups according to ages and aptitudes and receive instruction in the assorted lore of native life†¦particular stress on the historical background of the population as a means of stimulating group consciousness† (Gardner 2004: 343) is made. Gardner made the distinction of such ritualistic methods from more scientific ways of obtaining knowledge. â€Å"With formal schools, we behold a transition from tacit knowledge to explicit forms of knowledge† (Gardner 2004: 345). Such sensitivity to spoken knowledge displayed by native communities, when melded with modern methods of learning and technical requirements, may comprise what Gardner refers to as linguistic intelligence. When kids hailing from their native communities are absorbed in mainstream society, they are accorded the chance to fully develop this linguistic intelligence. Such language development also reflects or applies Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, which highlights the important role of language and social context in children’s cognitive processes. Language, in the case of African communities with an oral tradition of teaching kids, is used primarily to retain key concepts in the minds/memory of the youngsters. In such scenarios, children obtain greater understanding of their roots, including their ancestors, traditions, and culture as a whole, and piece together a logical picture in their minds by internalizing the various words and concepts articulated by knowledgeable elders. Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory likewise finds itself applied in contemporary society. As an alternative to the Piagetian concept as well as to the behaviorist schools of thought which had theorists like B. F. Skinner postulating that mental processes or learning occurred as a consequence of the individual’s response to, or interaction with, the environment†¦ and with reinforcement and punishment playing a crucial part in molding behavior (Child development theories, n. d. ), Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory articulated that learning is more of â€Å"a shared/joint process in a responsive social context† (Psychology applied, n. . ). Vygotsky debunked the view that learning depends or follows a child’s stage of development or maturation. Vygotsky veered away from the â€Å"biologically-based understanding of human behavior† or from the rewards and punishment concept set forth by behaviorists as main determinants of children’s thinking & behavior. Instead, he placed emphasis on the impact of social/cultural forces on human c ognitive processes and activity. He discovered the connecting links between socio-cultural processes taking place in society, and mental processes taking place in the individual† (Psychology applied, n. d. ). A modern example that applies in part Vgotsky’s learning theory of having a knowledgeable adult supervise the learning process and B. F. Skinner’s behaviorist approach is a structured skills-based tutoring service that offers individualized instruction to slow or advanced learners wishing to strengthen their foundation in key subjects like math, reading, and writing. Tutoring Club, one such company, has in its employ well-schooled and well-trained tutors who guide enrolled students who need to obtain better understanding of concepts in certain academic areas. The students work on modules of exercises designed to sharpen their cognitive skills, and every time they meet the desired output, an incentive (reward) comes in the form of a merchandise that they may get from a mini store inside the learning center, traded for chips which students accumulate for each module they complete. Another case in point is a modern-day Mathematics teacher who is instilling basic concepts to her students. An investigative research that zeroed in on a teacher who adopted the Vygotskian socio-cultural perspective in teaching Mathematics to her students showed how helpful it can be to encourage students to share their thoughts, ideas and assumptions with their peers under the teacher’s knowledgeable guidance and prodding. As the teacher opined, â€Å"Sharing clarifies their thinking. It lets them verbalize. nstead of just having it in their minds†¦ students become aware of how they think so that when they verbalized their thinking processes, she (the teacher) could help them with any difficulties they had† (Steele 2001). Based on the Vygotskian theory, language and communication – whether in remote rural communities or the contemporary setting, utilizes language and communication as essential tools to stimulate children’s cognitive development. The approach, of course, will vary depending on the physical state of each child. A different approach is taken for children with defects or physical impairment. Vygotsky may also be credited with tailorfitting the teaching method to the particular needs — as well as dysfunctions – of children. â€Å"Within his general theory of child development, (Vygotsky) created a comprehensive and practice-oriented paradigm of educating children with special needs (and) introduced the notion of `primary’ defects, `secondary’ defects, and their interactions in the field of psychopathology and different disabilities† (Psychology Applied, n. . ). Vygotsky believed that because cognitive development is hinged largely on stimulation of the senses, the physically and mentally impaired child is inhibited from obtaining knowledge at a generally accepted rate. More than the physical handicap of the special child, though, it is the â€Å"social consequences† (Psychology Applied, n. d) arising from that child’s impairment which must be gi ven focus. Cognitive developmental theories may be applied beyond the classroom, or in many other areas of children’s learning and lives. Various other factors that come into play which influence cognitive processes, like interactive media, also cannot be discounted. The condition of the child is likewise important in determining the right approach to inculcate learning. In any case, early cognitive developmental interventions, finetuned by succeeding theorists, serve not just to enhance academic outcomes but help shape the well-rounded personalities of today’s kids. Nowadays, the sound body of knowledge aimed at the workings of children’s mind continues to evolve and grow. In the end, it is up to parents, schools and other learning institutes, to determine which ones are truly suitable and will contribute in a healthy manner to the development of children’s cognitive skills. It can be seen that the pioneering works of such psychologists as Jean Piaget – who emphasized biologically-based or natural development of children’s cognitive skills — certainly provided good foundation or strong footing for succeeding child development theories to come out with improved concepts. Given the numerous cognitive development theories set forth and utilized for classroom teaching and/or child care, and the distinct differences and similarities in the main points of contention of the theorists laid out for people to grasp, which have undergone further study and enhancements and complemented by other theories throughout the years, parents and educators have been able to devise new and improved methods of enhancing children’s cognitive skills and potential.